Marking History - Mongol Empire: Conquer then Respect

 

Marking History - Mongol Empire: Conquer then Respect

 

Hello, and welcome to article 2 of the marking history theme. As discussed in my previous blog, this theme is about important events in history that escaped previous times, marking the beginning of a new age.

For this history marker, we will move forward to the mid later Medieval times, and venture east, discussing the most brutal imperialists of the age – the Mongols. In the 1200s and 1300s, they tore across 2 continents, stretching from Southeast Asia to Central Europe and as far up as Northern Europe.

Despite their brutality, their diplomatic and unifying skills were pivotal. Diplomacy aside for now though, Mongol chaos ruined civilisations. Kievan Rus (now Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus) suffered this in 1242, under khagan (or ruler) Batu of the Golden Horde khanate (or territory). This was created in the northwest of the empire (now parts of Kazakhstan and Eastern Europe, including West Russia) in 1227 after Genghis Khan (empire founder) died, and his empire was sectionalised.

Despite this, the Mongols valued keeping a good image in the eyes of people they conquered. Through futuristic religious cohesion, outstanding trade dealings, postal organisation and legislation protecting it all, they proved not to be the oppressive rulers people now may think they were.

Kickstarting these occurrences, for the history marker here, we will explore the 1215 Mongol conquest of Beijing. Beijing was a major hub the Mongols used to secure controlled development over the known world at the time (Europe, Asia and Africa), as we will discover.

Let us look now at the situations of the various areas before they were conquered by the Mongols.

Scattered Systems - Pre 1200s

The superpowers of China, India, Persia (now much of the Middle East), and smaller states, such as regions of Kazakhstan, Anatolia, and Eastern and Central Europe, were ruled by various dynasties.

Mongolia was populated by tribal nomads.

They all participated in the Silk Road trade, spanning Asia and parts of Europe. However, they were more disconnected states, with merchants trading goods in the absence of an effective central controlling body.

Due to this, solitude was common and, for maximum attainment of wealth, a strategy had to be made to economically benefit everyone.

Genghis Khan (empire founder) was the person with such a vision, and wanted to make it reality in any way necessary.

With context now provided, we can explore the parts glued together to the system the Mongols kept so well, starting with – religion.

Religion - Obedience by Autonomy

All religions were tolerated by the Mongol empire as part of their progressive approach. They even ensured religious people could continue thriving in most of their practices.

A successful khagan, Ogedei, of the Great Khanate to the east, from 1229-1241, supported religious people by constructing centres for them to worship in. They also excused religious teachers from paying taxes and fighting in the Mongol army. Genghis built religious institutes too, as a strategy to show respect and value.

Religious officials from Judaism and Christianity were even asked for governance advice.  Athough they were closely watched, they still had considerable influence. People were also hardly ever persecuted for their religions.

To explore further, we will see what religions were around. In Mongolia, Shamanism, amongst tribes, was one of the main religions, believing in spiritual connections with God. In China, Taoism was huge, viewing close connections between people and nature.

These, however, were miniscule compared to the big ones that follow.

Religions that Made Mongols Submit 

The biggest religions in the empire were firstly, Buddhism in China and India. In Persia (Middle Eastern areas), there was Islam, which would become most important for unity. In Europe, Christianity was largest. Though Buddhism was major, Christianity and Islam, being almost alien to the Mongols, were more notable when discussing religious tolerance, therefore, we will focus on them.

In terms of Christianity, there was a Mongol Christian minority, perhaps as a result of missions from Italy travelling to the Far East in 1241. Also, in the 1290s, another Italian, John of Montecorvino, travelled to Beijing, where he constructed a church, and made a Mongol language version of the Bible.

But Islamic activities were even more influential, as we will explore next. There was considerable Mongol conversion to Islam after they ravaged Persia, being involved with these states from 1217-1305. Persia would become the Ilkhanate, the Middle Eastern Mongol territory, after they decimated cities like Isfahan in Central Iran, in 1231, and Baghdad, in 1258. They then attempted to recover these settlements upon Islam gaining Mongol significance.

But importantly, these attacks were indiscriminate, and not religiously motivated, as Mongols pulverized and took over everywhere they encountered when conquering an area. However, Mongols would later also cause carnage in the name of Islam. The khagan responsible for this was Golden Horde ruler Ozbeg, who started ruling in 1312, and who was a Muslim. He hurt people of other religions, like Buddhists and Shamanists.

Despite these terrible actions, Islam did flourish positively, like in governance, providing guidance to Mongol officials. However, this religious tolerance needed legal enforcement, which is what khagans did.

Yassa - Ensuring Rights

This legal enforcement was ensured by Mongol law – Yassa. Genghis created it, and it was broadly based on fairness, justice, and equality for all in the empire. Mongols did grant themselves special privileges, like ordering total submission to Mongol rule, and ruthlessness towards those who did not comply. However, the idea of unity, as discussed before, was a strong fundamental of it.

For this to be actioned, Yassa had overseers to carry out specified commands, and the khagan Chagatai was the first to do this. This was right for him, as he ruled the Chagatai khanate in Central Asia, right in the middle of the empire, therefore, he could easily communicate with and reach people in other khanates. These communicated laws were known as conjectural law, like preventing thievery (notably farm animals), and assault, including against women. Death was almost always the consequence for violating Yassa.

However, this enforcement, and Yassa generally, did have a few negative results for religious people. Despite Yassa protection, and the Mongols’ broadly tolerant attitude, there were some restrictions for valued religious practices.

Practices that suffered the most were Islamic, like forbidden rules for Muslims regarding food, Modhammedan, not being met. This was as they conflicted with Mongol customs. Therefore, although Mongols were broadly tolerant of other religions, they forbid specific rituals in religions that were opposite to their own ways.

But rules in Yassa, like ones mentioned, had to be spread around the empire to be beneficial.

Ortoo - Mongol Travel System

Spreading information around the empire quickly required an efficient process, and the Yam, or Ortoo the Mongols devised did just that. Ogedei developed the Yam in 1234 as a postal system horse riders used.

These riders would use stops called relay stations, up to 40 miles apart, and messengers would rest at stations, or get a fresh horse. After this, the next rider would continue, with messages travelling up to 190 miles a day. This all prevented tiredness, and, sped up everything. For example, in 1227, when Genghis died in Far East Asia, Batu, located in Central Europe, found out in a mere month, allowing more time for emergency planning and organisation.

These occurrences secured the empire, and Yam operated outstandingly well in the 1270s, under Kublai Khan, who started the Yuan age, with 50,000 horses and 1,400 stations to use.

People using these services, as well as messengers, were soldiers for resources and Mongol officials, due to their significance and entitlement. This is why the Yam was also referred to as a supply point, since people could replenish resources.

All these perks were great, but, for many, the Yam was not given unconditionally, as the Mongols had methods of identification checking.

Paiza - Medieval Permission Slips

To benefit from the Yam, most users needed papers called paizas. Paizas showed people were allowed help from the Yam, like food, shelter, and transportation animals for carrying goods.

Yassa also covered the Yam.

Finally, we will explore what all these implementations really meant for the empire.

Trade & Exchange - Witnessing Prosperity

To start, I established the 1215 Mongol conquest of Beijing as the mid later Medieval times period marker, and we have now gone full circle. We will see the prosperity this successfully set up, revolving around the Silk Road, as Beijing was about the most major city for it. The Mongols controlled it, making trades civil international agreements between mutual states that mutually benefitted, instead of competition, as had previously been the case. This included the ortoq, which were trade links between Asians and European, strengthening commercial peace.

To encourage this trade, the Mongol government excused merchants abroad from paying taxes and they could at first, use the Yam for free. Also, if merchants were robbed, they were paid the value of goods stolen, or the Mongols made the first lost-and-found system for merchants to select goods for free.

To protect all this, Mongol forces regulated the route. Also, in Yassa, preventing assault against women resulted in more female participation, which was crucial since many traded goods were made by women.

Of the weapons used for this protection, many were gained from Indian and Persian trade. This is where Mongol imperialism and thriving trade go together. The Mongols started new trade routes in lands they conquered, including the seas to the southeast of these lands, known as the Maritime Silk Road, reaching as far as Indonesia.

But, as eye-catching as wealth was, some people found benefits that exceeded physical goods.

Benefits Beyond Monetary Value

All this trade the Mongols maintained allowed an economic boom for all states involved.  However, there were longer lasting more precious advantages. These were all people from different places sharing skills, processes, and revelations others could use. This interaction amongst such a variety of people enhanced communication, resulting in better understanding and cooperation.

Knowledge shared included states of Islam passing on scientific discoveries and techniques, improving medical treatment. China advised states on financial management, already having paper currency and advanced banking processes, bettering how states handled money. Europe revealed agricultural systems, animals, and crops to other states, leading to more varied and healthier diets.

Owning Beijing allowed Mongols to help in spreading all these goods for 160 years, as through imperial, and, subsequent trade, it allowed, with little interruption, people to prosper in their lifestyles, and pursue their cultures in ways that helped all.

Lastly, let's explore how this changed the rest of Medieval times.

Change – Unanticipated Union

Medieval times were about states working by themselves and not realising common benefit with others. But Mongols ushered in an age of international cooperation.

This unity was at risk when the Mongol empire collapsed in 1368, and, consequentially, the Silk Road declining, with China economically separating itself from the rest of the known world. But, despite this, the impact of Mongol unification stayed, with states still working together.

Sea trade took over from the land-based Silk Road trade, as Mongols showed sea trade worked from the Maritime Southeast Asian Silk Road, which resulted in states worked together. Ideas, as well as trade, shaped the remaining Middle Ages, including warfare which changed the geopolitical landscape. Separately, healthier living also occurred, and dealing with expenditure, therefore people could contribute more to society for the next century.

Interesting Facts

-        Mongol taxes resulted in Moscow developing: Russians collected taxes for the Mongol empire and used this wealth to raise armies that beat the Mongols.

-        Mongol trade caused the Black Death: Plague carrying bacteria travelled with traders along the Silk Road to Europe, where it spread.

Now, with the mid later Medieval period covered, read the preview below to find out what is in store next!

Coming Up - Boston Foundation: Global Economic Boat

Next time – One of the major early British North American settlements, Boston, founded in the mid early modern period (early modern: 1453-1815), was invaluable for the empire. It ensured global prosperity for the British empire in the 1600s and 1700s, and beyond. Contributions from Boston would set the trajectory of the world for centuries to come. To find out more about why Boston’s founding merits a place in the marking history theme, read my next article!